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It's an Electronic Communication Systems-focused technical blog. In this blog, we'll discuss Electronic communication systems, Wireless Communication, Telecommunication, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G [Read More], IoTs, MIMO, Beamforming, Millimeter wave, UWB, Microwave links, Wireless channels, Modulation techniques, GATE ESE, UGC-NET, Project / Thesis ideas [↗], Electronics industry, Programming, Web design, Short term courses, etc.



Ask your questions in the forum [↗]. We post articles about wireless communication technologies such as Wireless, 5G, UWB, Millimeter wave, Beamforming, IoTs, and MATLAB. Web design, WordPress, and other related topics are also significant components of our site.

 


Constellation Diagrams

Digital communication is complete with constellation diagrams. If you have a digital communication interview, the interviewer will ask you to draw a constellation diagram.

Ber vs. S.NR

The relationship between BER and SNR reveals how many transmitted bits from a communication system are corrupted. Did you know? Bit error rates for practical communication systems are close to 10-5 or better.




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MATLAB code for MSK

 Copy the MATLAB Code from here % The code is developed by SalimWireless.com clc; clear; close all; % Define a bit sequence bitSeq = [0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1]; % Perform MSK modulation [modSignal, timeVec] = modulateMSK(bitSeq, 10, 10, 10000); % Plot the modulated signal subplot(2,1,1); samples = 1:numel(bitSeq); stem(samples, bitSeq); title('Original message signal'); xlabel('Time (s)'); ylabel('Amplitude'); % Plot the modulated signal subplot(2,1,2); samples = 1:10000; plot(samples / 10000, modSignal(1:10000)); title('MSK modulated signal'); xlabel('Time (s)'); ylabel('Amplitude'); % Perform MSK demodulation demodBits = demodMSK(modSignal, 10, 10, 10000); % Function to perform MSK modulation function [signal, timeVec] = modulateMSK(bits, carrierFreq, baudRate, sampleFreq) % Converts a binary bit sequence into an MSK-modulated signal % Inputs: % bits - Binary input sequence % carrierFreq - Carri...
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Fundamentals of Channel Estimation

Channel Estimation Techniques Channel Estimation is an auto-regressive process that may be performed with a number of iterations. There are commonly three types of channel estimation approaches. 1. Pilot estimation  2. Blind estimation  3. Semi-blind estimation. For Channel Estimation,  CIR [↗] is used. The amplitudes of the impulses decrease over time and are not correlated. For example, y(n) = h(n) * x(n) + w(n) where y(n) is the received signal, x(n) is the sent signal, and w(n) is the additive white gaussian noise At the next stage, h(n+1) = a*h(n) + w(n) The channel coefficient will be modified as stated above at the subsequent stage. The scaling factor "a" determines the impulse's amplitude, whereas "h(n+1)" represents the channel coefficient at the following stage. Pilot Estimation Method To understand how a communication medium is currently behaving, a channel estimate is necessary. In order to monitor a channel's behavior in practice communication ...
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BER vs SNR for M-ary QAM, M-ary PSK, QPSK, BPSK, ...

Modulation Constellation Diagrams BER vs. SNR BER vs SNR for M-QAM, M-PSK, QPSk, BPSK, ... What is Bit Error Rate (BER)? The abbreviation BER stands for bit error rate, which indicates how many corrupted bits are received (after the demodulation process) compared to the total number of bits sent in a communication process. It is defined as,  In mathematics, BER = (number of bits received in error / total number of transmitted bits)  On the other hand, SNR refers to the signal-to-noise power ratio. For ease of calculation, we commonly convert it to dB or decibels.   What is Signal the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)? SNR = signal power/noise power (SNR is a ratio of signal power to noise power) SNR (in dB) = 10*log(signal power / noise power) [base 10] For instance, the SNR for a given communication system is 3dB. So, SNR (in ratio) = 10^{SNR (in dB) / 10} = 2 Therefore, in this instance, the s...
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Constellation Diagrams of ASK, PSK, and FSK

BASK (Binary ASK) Modulation: Transmits one of two signals: 0 or -√Eb, where Eb​ is the energy per bit. These signals represent binary 0 and 1.    BFSK (Binary FSK) Modulation: Transmits one of two signals: +√Eb​ ( On the y-axis, the phase shift of 90 degrees with respect to the x-axis, which is also termed phase offset ) or √Eb (on x-axis), where Eb​ is the energy per bit. These signals represent binary 0 and 1.  BPSK (Binary PSK) Modulation: Transmits one of two signals: +√Eb​ or -√Eb (they differ by 180 degree phase shift), where Eb​ is the energy per bit. These signals represent binary 0 and 1.  Key Points For Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK), binary bit '0' can be represented as lower level voltage or no signal and bit '1' as higher level voltage.  For Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK), you can map binary bit '0' to 'j' and bit '1' to '1'. So, signals are in phase.  A phase shift of 0 degrees could represent a binary '1...
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Difference between AWGN and Rayleigh Fading

Wireless Signal Processing Gaussian and Rayleigh Distribution Difference between AWGN and Rayleigh Fading 1. Introduction Rayleigh fading coefficients and AWGN, or additive white gaussian noise [↗] , are two distinct factors that affect a wireless communication channel. In mathematics, we can express it in that way.  Fig: Rayleigh Fading due to multi-paths Let's explore wireless communication under two common noise scenarios: AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) and Rayleigh fading. y = h*x + n ... (i) Symbol '*' represents convolution. The transmitted signal  x  is multiplied by the channel coefficient or channel impulse response (h)  in the equation above, and the symbol  "n"  stands for the white Gaussian noise that is added to the signal through any type of channel (here, it is a wireless channel or wireless medium). Due to multi-paths the channel impulse response (h) changes. And multi-paths cause Rayleigh fa...
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Comparisons among ASK, PSK, and FSK | And the definitions of each

Modulation ASK, FSK & PSK Constellation MATLAB Simulink MATLAB Code Comparisons among ASK, PSK, and FSK    Comparisons among ASK, PSK, and FSK Comparison among ASK,  FSK, and PSK Performance Comparison: 1. Noise Sensitivity:    - ASK is the most sensitive to noise due to its reliance on amplitude variations.    - PSK is less sensitive to noise compared to ASK.    - FSK is relatively more robust against noise, making it suitable for noisy environments. 2. Bandwidth Efficiency:    - PSK is the most bandwidth-efficient, requiring less bandwidth than FSK for the same data rate.    - FSK requires wider bandwidth compared to PSK.    - ASK's bandwidth efficiency lies between FSK and PSK. Bandwidth Calculator for ASK, FSK, and PSK The baud rate represents the number of symbols transmitted per second Select Modulation Type: ASK...
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Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK)

Dive into the fascinating world of GMSK modulation, where continuous phase modulation and spectral efficiency come together for robust communication systems! Core Process of GMSK Modulation Phase Accumulation (Integration of Filtered Signal) After applying Gaussian filtering to the Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) signal, we integrate the smoothed NRZ signal over time to produce a continuous phase signal: θ(t) = ∫ 0 t m filtered (Ï„) dÏ„ This integration is crucial for avoiding abrupt phase transitions, ensuring smooth and continuous phase changes. Phase Modulation The next step involves using the phase signal to modulate a high-frequency carrier wave: s(t) = cos(2Ï€f c t + θ(t)) Here, f c is the carrier frequency, and s(t) represents the continuous-phase modulated carrier wave. Quadrature Modulation (Optional) ...
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Constellation Diagram of FSK in Detail

  Binary bits '0' and '1' can be mapped to 'j' and '1' to '1', respectively, for Baseband Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) . Signals are in phase here. These bits can be mapped into baseband representation for a number of uses, including power spectral density (PSD) calculations. For passband BFSK transmission, we can modulate signal 'j' with a lower carrier frequency and signal '1' with a higher carrier frequency while transmitting over a wireless channel. Let's assume we are transmitting carrier signal fc1 for the transmission of binary bit '1' and carrier signal fc2 for the transmission of binary bit '0'. Energy per bit (Eb): (For transmission of binary ‘1’) (For transmission of binary ‘0’) Constellation Diagram of FSK Fig 1: Constellation Diagram of FSK  In the above figure values are in terms of the normalized functions. √(2/Tb).cos2Пf1t and √(2/Tb).cos2Пf2t are orthogonal functions in the inter...
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